Sexual Assualt in the US Prisons Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Sexual Assualt in the US Prisons - Dissertation Example This assault is perpetrated on males, females and even illegal immigrants housed in prison facilities all over the country. In order for us to understand how this abuse occurs, we need to take a close look at the US prison systems, penal laws, and statutes, evaluate the problem, and analyze the efficiency of measures taken by the government to curb sexual assaults inside US prisons. Many ordinary individuals have heard detailed stories in the media especially the newspapers about prisoners being beaten by guards with batons, fired at unnecessarily with guns or raped and abused by prison officers. (World Report 2000) Authorities have found out that the penal facilities in almost every state in America are replete with such abuse. A federal court, for instance, came to a conclusion that the rate and number of "wholly unnecessary physical aggression" committed by guards in Texas prison facilities mirrored a "culture of sadistic and malicious violence" exhibited in those facilities. Violence and other forms of harassment perpetrated by prisoners against each other are even more of an everyday occurrence. Authorities and independent groups estimated that more than 70 percent of prison inmates are assaulted and abused by their fellow inmates every year. Almost yearly, the incidences of violence and abuse in American prisons continue to escalate. Near the turn of the c entury for instance in 1998, 79 prisoners were killed and thousands more suffered severe injuries (The Corrections Yearbook 1998). The previous year of 1997, 10 percent of inmates across the states and 3 percent of inmates housed in federal facilities were reported severely injured in scuffles and brawls since they have entered prisons. The New York state prisons systems have recognized the prevalence of this problem and stated that the "extraordinary amount of crime committed in state prisons annually merely shifts the locus of criminal activity away from neighborhoods to correctional facilities† For the experts and authorities, street gangs have merely moved territories from the streets into the penal facilities.

Developing poise is a question of developing confidence in ones personality Essay Example for Free

Developing poise is a question of developing confidence in ones personality Essay Developing poise is a question of developing confidence in ones personality. Look at all the people who lack this confidence. The noisy are unsure of themselves and trying to attract attention. The awkward are over-anxious, worrying about the impression they are making. The clumsy are self-conscious, scared of disapproval. Some people lack poise because it requires ability to wait for people and things to come to you, rather than straining after them. This action demands a degree of self-confidence which they have not managed to acquire. The first essential to poise is a sense of well-being. It is difficult to be poised if you are suffering from poor health; so many things are apt to upset you. One should try to be as fit as possible by living and eating wisely, having sufficient rest, and by getting proper treatment when something is wrong. A second necessary part of the sense of well-being is scrupulous cleanliness and freshness with regard to oneself and ones person. Allied to this is appearance. You must look and feel that you look your best. It is not necessary to spend a lot of money on clothes, but it is vital that you should think you look smart, and that your clothes should be so comfortable that you can forget about them. Now behavior comes in, including the way we walk and carry ourselves, sit down, stand up, and move around. The body should be upright and well-balanced, head up, shoulders back, tail tucked in. We should aim to look alert and interested, to walk easily from the hips, neither mincing along in short tight little steps nor striding. We should study the way we sit down and rise to our feet. We should place a chair in front of a long mirror and see how well- or how badly- we do it, asking a sympathetic friend or a family member to criticize. It is mostly a matter of how we carry ourselves. We should watch the way we open and close doors and cupboards. We should learn to sit well back on a chair instead of perching on its edge. By far the most important part of good manners is consideration for others- putting people at their ease, making them welcome, seeing that they are comfortable and have what they need, stepping into the background to give them a chance to shine. We should always practice unfailing courtesy. There is also a matter of the way we talk. A pleasant speaking voice gives its owner tremendous self-confidence. Every now and then, as a check, we should listen to ourselves talking. Nervousness may be making us gabble, or on the other hand, slowing us down until we seem pompous. Or we may be pitching our voices too high or too low. Because poise is primarily a question of self-confidence, we must have a sense of personal worth- the feeling that we are wanted and have something to give the world. A feeling that we are unwanted and that the world would be better off without us gives rise to a reaction to avoid people or to become aggressive towards them. Financial insecurity, job worries, dull routine work that seems important, work that others take for granted, or anything that encourages us to believe that we are of no account destroys our sense of personal worth and with it our self-confidence. It is hard to feel at ease with people when we are resenting being made to feel inferior. There is also an unpleasant sensation of being out of things and not belonging which, in our minds at least, sets us apart from other people and causes us to be anxious about the impression we are making. Students and adolescents generally are difficult to reach and to get at, as we say, because they are so uncertain of themselves and their future. They are gauche and touchy because they feel insecure. To develop poise we have to find value in ourselves and meaning to life. In plain words, we have to do a job that strikes us as being worthwhile and useful, and acquire the skill which this implies. To achieve real poise, one must be careful about people. They are remarkable for their unpredictability, which means in terms of practical living that it is unwise to depend on them too much. Like us, they are swayed by their moods and feelings. If we often surprise and horrify ourselves, why should we be hurt or angry when others react in ways equally surprising? We have to learn to be self-sufficient in the sense of being able to stand aloof, relying on ourselves when necessary for our happiness. This is not difficult if we have a sense of personal worth and satisfying interests. We should avoid becoming emotionally involved in other peoples quarrels, prejudices, dislikes, and arguments. If we are forced to take part, we may try to be a calming influence.

The significance of preventing accidents In a construction industry

The significance of preventing accidents In a construction industry Today, most of the top managers, contractors and workers, who work in construction industry, are aware about the significance of preventing accident.( In fact they know that ignoring safety and health can impose a high penalty on a company -large or small. Also individual accident or injury can mean compensation, time off and lost production and what have seemed to be a minor risk becomes a major liability)(safety at work/compiled by Badrie Abdullah/p.iii). Therefore they know the valuable of occupational safety and health management (OSH), although most of the managers havent enough knowledge about OSH. It means that they dont know what the OSH is and how they must use it. In this report I try to investigate different part of OSH management in addition the need for it. Introduction In current years, construction accident rates have decreased as a result of substantial effort by many parties. Increased pressures from OSHA and owners, and increased cost of accidents raised the contractors awareness. In turn, contractors increased safety training and enforcement. These efforts have decline the injury and illness rate from 12.2 in 1993 to 7.9 in 2001. The recent approach to accident prevention is based on OSHAs violations approach and focuses on prescribing and enforcing defenses that is, physical and procedural barriers that reduce the workers exposure to hazards. The violations of the defenses are called unsafe conditions and unsafe behaviors. (Systems Model of Construction Accident Causation /Panagiotis Mitropoulos1; Tariq S. Abdelhamid2; and Gregory A. Howell3.p.12) Only knowing about the benefits of OSH management isnt enough, we must be act and apply it. So at first its important to understand the necessity of OSH management then definition of OSH management and finally how we can follow its rules to make our workplace safe. Who are included in the safety value chain? Maybe, it `s better to ask this question who should be interested in accident causation and safety system? In fact the safety value chain includes students, researchers, technicians, system designers, operators, managers, shareholders, accident investigators and safety inspectors. (Fig.1), all these groups affect to system safety in different time-scale. Educators and researchers play important role in this safety value chain, because educators by teaching safety culture can help students to have awareness before they enter to workplace and they impact on accident prevention in long term. Safety levels Short- term Medium-term Long-term Regulatory Accident investigators, safety inspectors, and regulators (Penalties) Economic (Incentives) Insurers shareholders Organizational/ Managers and company executives Managerial Operational/ Technicians and system designers Maintenance Technical/ Engineers and system designers Design Research researchers and academics Education students Fig 1.safety levers and shareholders in the safety value chain Accident theories based on year: NO Models year 1 Domino Theory Heinrich 1931 2 Multi casual Model Gordon 1941 3 Critical Incident Technique Flanagan 1954 4 Combination of Factors Model Schulzinger 1956 5 Goals Freedom Alertness Theory Kerr 1957 6 Energy Exchange Model Haddon et al 1964 7 Decision Model Surry In Viner 1969 1991a 8 Behavioral Methods Hale Hale Anderson et al 1970 1978 9 Fault Tree Analysis II Meister Hoys Zimolong 1971 1988 10 Error Model Wigglesworth 1972 11 Life Change Unit Model Alkov 1972 12 Hazard Carrier Model Skiba Hoys Zimolong 1973 1988 13 Task-Demand Model Waller Klein 1973 14 Multilinear Events Sequencing Model Banner 1975 15 Systems Safety Analysis Smillie Ayoub 1976 16 Risk Estimation Model Rowe 1977 17 Danger response Model Hale Prusse 1977 18 Incidental Factor Analysis Model Leplat 1978 19 Accident Sequence Model Ramsey Quoted in Sanders McCormick Ramsey 1978 1987 1985 20 Psychological Model Corlett Gilbank 1987 21 Domino/Energy Release Zabetakis, quoted in Heinrich et al 1980 22 Stair Step Model Douglas, quoted in Heinrich et al 1980 23 Motivation Reward Satisfaction Model Petersen, quoted in Heinrich et al 1980 24 Energy Model Ball, quoted in Heinrich et al 1980 25 Systems Model Firenze, quoted in Heinrich et al 1980 26 Epidemiological Model Suchman, quoted in Heinrich et al 1980 27 Updated Domino Model Bird Jr, quoted in Heinrich et al 1980 28 Updated Domino Model Adams, quoted in Heinrich et al 1980 29 Updated Domino Model II Weaver, quoted in Heinrich et al 1980 30 Task Ability Model Drury Brill 1980 31 OARU Model Kjellen Hovden Kjellen Larsson 1981 32 Traffic Conflicts Technique Zimolong 1982 33 Signals Passed at Danger Decision Tree Model Taylor, R. K. and Lucas, D.A in ch.8 of Van Der Schaaf , Lucas Hale 1991 34 Ergonomic Behavioral Methods Kjellen 1984 35 Human Causation Model Mager Pipe 1984 36 Near Accidents Incidents Swain 1985 37 Behavior Model Rasmussen 1986 38 Contributing Factors Model Sanders Shaw 1987 39 Hazard Carrier Model Hayos Zimolong 1988 40 Comet Model Boylston 1990 41 Comprehensive Human Factors Model Dejoy 1990 42 View of Workers on Safety Decisions Model Saari 1990 43 Epidemiological Model Kriebel, quoted in Cone et al 1990 44 Universal Model McClay 1990 45 Federation of Accident Insurance Institution(Finland)Model Seppanen 1997 46 Question Tree Model Hale et al.in Van Der Schaaf, Lucas Hale 1991 47 Occurrence Consequence Process Model Viner 1991b 48 Onward Mappings Model based on Resident Pathogens Metaphor Reason 1991 49 Functional Levels Model Hurst et al 1992 50 Tripod Tree Wheelahan 1994 51 Attribution Theory Model Dejoy 1994 52 Cindynic Hyperspace Kervern 1995 53 Fig.2 Accident theories (Enhancing Occupational Safety and Health, Geofry Taylor, Kellie Easter, Roy Hegney)2004 What is occupational safety and control? The Occupational Safety and Health management is a management which provides the legislative framework to secure the safety, health and welfare among all workforces and to protect others against risks to safety or health in connection with the activities of persons at work.( Job Seeker Handbook/alaysian Labour Law : Regulation of Employment) Occupational health and safety is a discipline with a broad scope involving many specialized fields. In its broadest sense, it should aim at: the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in all occupations; the prevention among workers of adverse effects on health caused by their working conditions; The protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from factors adverse to health; The placing and maintenance of workers in an occupational environment adapted to physical and mental needs; The adaptation of work to humans. In other words, occupational health and safety encompasses the  social, mental and physical well-being of workers that is the whole person. (Website of International Labor organization) What is an accident? It is necessary to define what we mean by the word accident, because before anyone can begin to put up any sort of a flight, he must know his enemy. So we must do the same. An accident is an unplanned event, which could result in injury to persons or in damage to plant and equipment or both. Also accidents are consequent of unplanned (unsafe) acts or unplanned (unsafe) conditions performed or created by people. In fact people cause accidents, by what they do or what they neglect to do and the activity of people, in a factory or any other place of work, are controlled by management. (a safe place of work/D.WB James/p.56) From the linguistic point of view, the word accident is the present participle of the Latin verb accident which means to happen, which in turn is derived from ad- + cadere, meaning to fall. The literal meaning of accident is therefore that of a fall or stumble. The derivation from to fall is significant, since falling is not something one dose on purpose. If someone falls while walking or while climbing, it is decidedly an unexpected and unwanted event. It is, in other words, what we call an accident: an unforeseen and unplanned event, which leads to some sort of loss or injury. Other definitions of accident , such as they can be found in various dictionaries, concur that an accident is an unforeseen and unplanned event or circumstance that (1) happens unpredictably without discernible human intention or observable cause and (2) leads to loss or injury. Used as an adverb, to say that something happens accidently or happens by accident means that it happens by chance. (Barriers and Accident Prevention/Erik Hollnagel p.34/2005) The need for accident models It is a truism that we cannot think about something without having the words and concepts to describe it, or without having some frame of reference. The advantage of having a common frame of reference is that communication and understanding become more efficient, because a number of things can be taken for granted. The frame of reference is particularly important in thinking about accidents, because it determines how we view the role of humans. (Barriers and Accident Prevention/Erik Hollnagel p.4445/2005) Accident causation models: Figure 2.  Diagram showing the dominate five perceptions of accident causation (Benner 1975).   The single event concept SINGLE EVENT CONCEPT What the first opinion of accident causation is the Single Event Concept. This idea concentrates that a single event caused accident. It means that this simple model is the widest The first perception of accident causation is the single event concept. This concept focuses on the premise that accidents are caused by a single event. This simple model exemplifies the quest for the cause of what occurred. The search for a scapegoat and taking care of the scapegoat would solve the problem. This concept is the most widely perceived and least complex. The public and media typically utilize this concept when they ask what caused the accident?   Limitations The single events concept is limited in its ability to see the accident as a process or sequence of events in time. The factors that may contribute to the accident are not identified or pursued due to the fact that the real cause is obvious and visible. Causes that may underline human behavior are rarely determined.   Application Current applications are primarily apparent in how the public and media view accidents. This viewpoint is reinforced by findings such as when an airline accident was caused by pilot error. Police citations are another example of the perception.   CHAIN OF EVENTS CONCEPT History The chain of events concept or domino theory was originally developed by Heinrich (1941). The basic concept implied that accidents resulted from a sequence of events that led to an accident. Like a row of dominos, once the sequence began each event led to the next until an accident occurred. Intervention at any point along the events sequence could halt the accident process and eliminate the unwanted results. An unsafe act starts the chain of events that began with an unsafe condition.   Limitations This concept is limited by the linear progression characteristic of the model. Interactions among events, contributing causes, and the duration and timing of each event limit the identification of all causal factors.   Applications The current use of this concept is prevalent in the legal field that attempts to reconstruct the sequence of events that led to the accident.   2.the determinat variable concept 3.the domino theory 4.the fault tree analytical methodology FAULT TREE ANALYSIS Heinrich (1941) developed the methodology that preceded and formed the basis for Fault Tree Analysis. He illustrated the linear sequence of factors in accident causation by using a domino theory. The theory stated that a disturbance that caused any one of the five identified components of the sequence to fail would set off a chain-of-events that led to an accident. The five in the sequence were 1) ancestry and social environment, 2) conditions and fault of person, 3) unsafe act, 4) unsafe condition and 5) injury. He showed that by intervention at any point along the sequence an accident/injury could be prevented. This theory has been modified and updated (Baker 1953, Marcum 1978, Heinrich et al 1980), and has wide applicability in current automobile accident and law enforcement investigations.   Similar linear sequence models such as Critical Path Analysis (CPA), Gantt Charts, and Program Evaluation Research Task (PERT), were initially used in the 1950s and 60s as planning tools (Lockyer 1964). Though many names were given to their process they were very similar in their goals and methods. They provided a graphical display of activities linked to events by arrows in order to plan complex projects. The process illustrated a flow (path) from one task sequence to the next and incorporated time frames and interrelationships between tasks. Projects could then be analyzed by task, the amount of time needed for each segment and the relationship a task may have with another task. These methods offered an effective means of project planning, costs analysis, and time frame considerations by visually outlining the task process (Lockyer 1964). These processes also provided the means to better understand the interrelationships between and among tasks. This logical depiction of process fl ow related directly to analyzing an accident sequence and the precursor events.   In the 1960s Bell Laboratories expanded upon the linear chain of events concept through missile system safety. They arranged events in a flow chart that used a proceed/follow logic pattern. Their concept, Fault Tree Analysis (Figure 11), is generally credited to Watson (1971). Figure 12 illustrates the fault tree concept as applied to a hypothetical accident where a wildland firefighter was burned. This analysis concept helped provide a sense of management by objectives by identifying unwanted events (the top event) and then systematically and sequentially determining the precursor events. The objective is the top event and the identification of the preceding causal factors aid in the management achievement of that objective. Watsons Fault Tree Analysis investigation methodology provided a visible, easily understood and defendable format (1971). The methodology extended the linear chain of events into a branched events chains concept through the use of and/or logic gates. It uses bas ic Boolean logic in a hierarchical tree format. Other Boolean terms such as not are not used in Fault Tree Analysis. For example, C can only occur when both A  and  B occur. If two or more events are required for a cause to happen then an and symbol is used. Another possibility is when only one of the factors need be present. For C to occur, then A  or  B occurred. If only one event of two or more are necessary then an or gate is used. The top event is the unwanted result of the accident and causal factors branch out below leading to it. The downward sequence is continued until the root causes are found or the tree cannot be further developed. This technique, according to Benner (1975), contributed a powerful tool for the investigation of accidents both historical and postulated. Accidents could be investigated or reinvestigated in the search for causal factors utilizing this method. It assisted in illuminating areas that may have previously been overlooked by other means. Numerous approaches to determining accident causal factor using branched events chains reflected the discipline of the investigations employing it; thus medical doctors   used an epidemiological approach (agent/host/environment), while psychologists focused on human factors.   Figure 11. Fault Tree diagram illustrating a typical failure process, symbols used,   and the logic sequence leading to an undesired event, a dark room (in Ferry 1988). Figure 12. Fault Tree diagram illustrating the deductive process using an example of a sequence of events in which a firefighter receives burns.   One key limitation of Fault Tree Analysis is the inability to model time sequences that are concurrent and interactive (Hendrick and Benner 1987). Brown (1993) added that only one event could be analyzed at a time and thus primarily applicable to catastrophic events. Benner (1975) cited similar deficiencies, most notably that charting analysis methods focus on a single undesired event and provided no means to indicate the chronological relationships (and the subsequent concurrent interrelationships) of events. Another limitation is the restriction inherent in the method whereby causes must be either successes or failures and degrees of each are not accounted for (Tulsiani and others 1990).   5.the energy-barriers-targets model Barriers Analysis Barriers Analysis is an accident investigation method that is an additional component of the MORT process. The method identifies barriers/controls that are in place to prevent accidents. These barriers may be physical and/or administrative and must be absent, inadequate, or bypassed in order for the accident to occur. A more detailed account of this approach will be undertaken in the methods section as this method is one of the USDA proposed investigative tools (USDA 1998).   6.the management oversight and risk tree History Traditional accident investigations focused on the active response to a mishap and the identification of procedures to prevent future occurrences. The degree and intensity of the accident dictated the intensity of the investigation response and subsequent preventative action (Brown 1993). But as technology advanced and systems became more complex, the consequences of accidents became increasingly unacceptable to society and industry, particularly in the nuclear power industry. The nuclear industry and similar high-risk technologies have determined that learning from accidents and even near misses was not an option. The consequences of accidents precluded the traditional trial by error approach where as accidents occurred the problem was fixed subsequent to the next mishap (termed the fly-fix-fly approach). A new approach was undertaken to become proactive as well as reactive in accident analysis techniques to determine possible failure points prior to occurrence. Johnson (1973a) work ing for the National Safety Council and under a contract from the US Atomic Energy Commission focused on a systems approach to accident analysis. This approach focused on the entire system in which accidents occurred and the interaction of events within that system. Johnson merged two basic views to focus on management responsibility in planning the context in which accidents occur. These views, understanding the energy release process and focusing management of that hazard on the route of its release, led Johnson to develop the concept of less than adequate management decisions. This progressed to the Management Oversight and Risk Tree (MORT) accident analysis tool. He said MORT was an analytical procedure that provides a disciplined approach for finding the causes and contributing factors of mishaps. It entailed a very broad and detailed checklist that facilitated the search for safety problems. It incorporated 1500 possible causes and 98 generic problems and was the initial metho dology to embody management oversight into accident causation. The Department of Energy currently employs this method as one of its most comprehensive analytical techniques (DOE 1992). It is more generally used as a proactive method in safety system evaluations than as an accident investigation method. This is primarily due to the fact that it can be time consuming and intensive and due to the nature of the nuclear industry, identifying possible loopholes in the safety system to eliminate hazards is more cost effective and publicly expedient than after the accident occurs.   This concept was highly visible, easily reviewed and updated as new relevant facts warrant, and provided structure to help reduce overlooked factors and bias. Within the MORT system incidents were defined as inadequate barrier/controls or as failures without consequence. Accidents resulted in adverse consequences. The MORT system incorporated the concept of the unwanted transfer of energy that can cause mishaps due to inadequate barriers/controls. These barriers and controls may be physical (protective clothing, concrete walls, etc) or administrative (codes, standards and regulations). The MORT system is based on two main sources of accidental losses: 1) specific job oversights and omissions and 2) the management system factors that control the job (Johnson 1973a). A third source he mentioned was assumed risk. Johnson noted that once this source was properly evaluated it could not be considered accidental in nature since we have consciously decided to accept the risk. Integral aspect s of the MORT process are Fault Tree Analysis, Barriers Analysis and Event and Causal Factors Charting. Each of these approaches will be subsequently explained.   Limitations Limitations of MORT are that it can be insufficient in finding specific causes as it designed to identify general causal areas (Gertman and Blackman 1994). These authors do recognize its strengths in identifying more specific control and managerial factors. Moreover, this systematic process is advantageous when system experts are not available.   Application Its current use as a proactive safety system analysis tool for the Department of Energy has long standing (Briscoe 1990). It has been used exclusively as both a proactive technique and an accident investigation method for the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.   7.petersen`s multiple causation model 8.reason`s swiss chess model of human error 1990 Reasons Swiss Cheese Model of Human Error One particularly appealing approach to the genesis of human error is the one proposed by James Reason (1990). Generally referred to as the Swiss cheese model of human error, Reason describes four levels of human failure, each influencing the next (Figure 1). Working backwards in time from the accident, the first level depicts those  Unsafe Acts  of Operators that ultimately led to the accident[1]. More commonly referred to in aviation as aircrew/pilot error, this level is where most accident investigations have focused their efforts and consequently, where most causal factors are uncovered. After all, it is typically the actions or inactions of aircrew that are directly linked to the accident. For instance, failing to properly scan the aircrafts instruments while in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) or penetrating IMC when authorized only for visual meteorological conditions (VMC) may yield relatively immediate, and potentially grave, consequences. Represented as holes i n the cheese, these active failures are typically the last unsafe acts committed by aircrew. [1]  Reasons original work involved operators of a nuclear power plant. However, for the purposes of this manuscript, the operators here refer to aircrew, maintainers, supervisors and other humans involved in aviation. However, what makes the Swiss cheese model particularly useful in accident investigation, is that it forces investigators to address latent failures within the causal sequence of events as well. As their name suggests, latent failures, unlike their active counterparts, may lie dormant or undetected for hours, days, weeks, or even longer, until one day they adversely affect the unsuspecting aircrew. Consequently, they may be overlooked by investigators with even the best intentions. Within this concept of latent failures, Reason described three more levels of human failure. The first involves the condition of the aircrew as it affects performance. Referred to asPreconditions for Unsafe Acts, this level involves conditions such as mental fatigue and poor communication and coordination practices, often referred to as crew resource management (CRM). Not surprising, if fatigued aircrew fail to communicate and coordinate their activities with others in the cockpit or individuals external to the aircraft (e.g., air traffic control, maintenance, etc.), poor decisions are made and errors often result. Figure 1. The Swiss cheese model of human error causation (adapted from Reason, 1990). But exactly why did communication and coordination break down in the first place? This is perhaps where Reasons work departed from more traditional approaches to human error. In many instances, the breakdown in good CRM practices can be traced back to instances of  Unsafe Supervision, the third level of human failure. If, for example, two inexperienced (and perhaps even below average pilots) are paired with each other and sent on a flight into known adverse weather at night, is anyone really surprised by a tragic outcome? To make matters worse, if this questionable manning practice is coupled with the lack of quality CRM training, the potential for miscommunication and ultimately, aircrew errors, is magnified. In a sense then, the crew was set up for failure as crew coordination and ultimately performance would be compromised. This is not to lessen the role played by the aircrew, only that intervention and mitigation strategies might lie higher within the system. Reasons model didnt stop at the supervisory level either; the organization itself can impact performance at all levels. For instance, in times of fiscal austerity, funding is often cut, and as a result, training and flight time are curtailed. Consequently, supervisors are often left with no alternative but to task non-proficient aviators with complex tasks. Not surprisingly then, in the absence of good CRM training, communication and coordination failures will begin to appear as will a myriad of other preconditions, all of which will affect performance and elicit aircrew errors. Therefore, it makes sense that, if the accident rate is going to be reduced beyond current levels, investigators and analysts alike must examine the accident sequence in its entirety and expand it beyond the cockpit. Ultimately, causal factors at all levels within the organization must be addressed if any accident investigation and prevention system is going to succeed. In many ways, Reasons Swiss cheese model of accident causation has revolutionized common views of accident causation. Unfortunately, however, it is simply a theory with few details on how to apply it in a real-world setting. In other words, the theory never defines what the holes in the cheese really are, at least within the context of everyday operations. Ultimately, one needs to know what these system failures or holes are, so that they can be identified during accident investigations or better yet, detected and corrected before an accident occurs. The balance of this paper will attempt to describe the holes in the cheese. However, rather than attempt to define the holes using esoteric theories with little or no practical applicability, the original framework (called the  Taxonomy of Unsafe Operations) was developed using over 300 Naval aviation accidents obtained from the U.S. Naval Safety Center (Shappell Wiegmann, 1997a). The original taxonomy has since been refined using input and data from other military (U.S. Army Safety Center and the U.S. Air Force Safety Center) and civilian organizations (National Transportation Safety Board and the Federal Aviation Administration). The result was the development of the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS). 1.2. Accident investigation methods During the last decades, a number of methods for accident investigation have been developed and described in the literature.The selection of methods for the needs of our study was made on the basis that they are described in the literature, they show the evolution of accident investigation over time and they are either widely used or recently developed. Based on these criteria, the following methods were selected: 1.2.1. Fault tree analysis (FTA) FTA was developed in the early 1960s by the Bell Laboratories (Ferry, 1988). In FTA, an undesired event (an accident) is selected and all the possible things that can contribute to the event are diagrammed as a tree in order to show logical connections and causes leading to a specified accident. FTA is more an analytical tool for establishing relations; it does not give the i

Immigration to the United States :: Immigrants Culture Cultural Essays Papers

Immigration to the United States Immigration has always been in existence in the United States since the beginning of American History. At the turn of the 20th century immigration has been an issue for the people in this country. The ironic thing is that the majority of the population has evolved from some type of immigrant. In every journal that I was given to read or video to watch it always comes down to the same thing, people have a problem with other people because they are immigrants. I believe people carry a fear when it deals with people that they cannot understand. After reading the article Why Migration it made me realize that people don?t always migrate to another country for lack of jobs or food. Migrating to another country could be the cause of persecution or no jobs that are available for what the community of people know how to do. The jobs they have always performed their whole life may have just been eliminated or moved to different areas of the world. According to the article it states that countries including Mexico and South Korea had increasing rates of Gross National Product during the 70?s and yet their rate of emigration was the highest. This could be the cause of the jobs they were accustomed to where now residing in the United States or the jobs they once held were lost to industrial machines. In the 80?s America saw an increase of Salvadorians enter the country. This was not a problem until the war escalated in 1981. Most of the people could not work with the war going on and the chances of death during the war were not ignored as people fled the country. People leave for different reasons some for financial situations, persecution, jobs, and overpopulation. Laos experienced persecution after the Vietnam War. The people were tortured and murdered for their participation in resistance towards the northern Vietnamese. Americans complain about the existing problem of immigration but they need to look at their own participation in the problem. The wealth of the nation that demands service such as house cleaning, cooks, servers, dish washers, etc.

Contributions made to the United States from women Essay

?Prior to the civil war a variety of individuals such as women, Native Americans, and African Americans provided a number of contributions that benefitted the country. The women raised children, did all of the household chores, and even served in the military. The Native Americans provided colonists with their new knowledge of agriculture, and the African Americans provided labor to most farmers. Women contributed a great deal to this country. During the time before the civil war women were providing more for this country than they ever have in the past. While still performing the difficult tasks of raising children and doing household chores, women began to take on more roles that were usually left for the men. They ran inns, taverns, shipbuilding companies, imported and exported goods and even owned businesses. Women contributed during the American Revolution by helping either providing healthcare or actually serving in the army. Many women fought in the war themselves, although some had to pretend to be men to do so. Women had a great impact in the outcome of that war. Another set of individuals who helped contribute to America was the Native Americans. Upon the arrival of the first colonists the Natives began teaching them the basics of agriculture and survival. They taught them how to grow several different types of crops as well as how to fish, hunt and forge for other food. Additionally, some of the natives even helped protect the colonists from other not so friendly natives. Without the Natives the colonists may not have survived long enough to build the nation that they did. African Americans also contributed a lot to the country. African Americans were the main source of labor throughout the United States before the civil war. Most farmers relied solely on their slaves to plant, grow, and harvest their crops. With the use of slaves, farmers were able to plant more crops and harvest them faster. By having servants to help do household chores, African Americans also helped make the lives of women easier. The country benefitted greatly from these three groups of individuals. By providing something different these three groups shaped the country into what it is today.

3795823-202019 Essays - Government, Free Essays, Term Papers

3795823-202019 Essays - Government, Free Essays, Term Papers 3795823-202019 Weeks of wet weather preceding Lincoln's second inauguration had caused Pennsylvania Avenue to become a sea of mud and standing water. Thousands of spectators stood in thick mud at the Capitol grounds to hear the President. As he stood on the East Portico to take the executive oath, the completed Capitol dome over the President's head was a physical reminder of the resolve of his Administration throughout the years of civil war. Chief Justice Salmon Chase administered the oath of office. In little more than a month, the President would be assassinated.020000 Weeks of wet weather preceding Lincoln's second inauguration had caused Pennsylvania Avenue to become a sea of mud and standing water. Thousands of spectators stood in thick mud at the Capitol grounds to hear the President. As he stood on the East Portico to take the executive oath, the completed Capitol dome over the President's head was a physical reminder of the resolve of his Administration throughout the years of civil war. Chief Justice Salmon Chase administered the oath of office. In little more than a month, the President would be assassinated."Second Inaugural Address" A Speech by Abraham Lincoln (Saturday, March 4, 1865) 1Fellow-Countrymen: At this second appearing to take the oath of the Presidential office there is less occasion for an extended address than there was at the first. Then a statement somewhat in detail of a course to be pursued 5seemed fitting and proper. Now, at the expiration of four years, during which public declarations have been constantly called forth on every point and phase of the great contest which still absorbs the attention and engrosses the energies of the nation, little that is new could be presented. The progress of our arms, upon which all else chiefly depends, is as well known to the public as to myself, and it is, I trust, reasonably satisfactory and encouraging to all. With high hope for the 10future, no prediction in regard to it is ventured. On the occasion corresponding to this four years ago, all thoughts were anxiously directed to an impending civil war. All dreaded it, all sought to avert it. While the inaugural address was being delivered from this place, devoted altogether to saving the Union without war, insurgent agents were in the city seeking to destroy it without warseeking to dissolve the Union and divide effects by 15negotiation. Both parties deprecated war, but one of them would make war rather than let the nation survive, and the other would accept war rather than let it perish, and the war came. One eighth of the whole population were colored slaves, not distributed generally over the Union, but localized in the Southern part of it. These slaves constituted a peculiar and powerful interest. All knew that this interest was, somehow, the cause of the war. To strengthen, perpetuate, 20and extend this interest was the object for which the insurgents would rend the Union, even by war; while the government claimed no right to do more than to restrict the territorial enlargement of it. Neither party expected for the war, the magnitude, or the duration, which it has already attained. Neither anticipated that thecauseof the conflict might cease with, or even before, the conflict itself should cease. Each looked for an easier triumph, and a result less fundamental and astounding. Both 25read the same Bible, and pray to the same God; and each invokes His aid against the other. It may seem strange that any men should dare to ask a just God's assistance in wringing their bread from th e sweat of other men's faces; but let us judge not that we be not judged. The prayers of both could not be answered; that of neither has been answered fully. The Almighty has his own purposes. "Woe unto the world because of offences! for it must needs be that offences come; but woe to that man by 30whom the offence cometh!" If we shall suppose that American Slavery is one of those offences which, in the providence of God, must needs come, but which, having continued through His appointed time, He now wills to remove, and that He gives to both North and South, this terrible war,